Bibliographie
Bever Platt, Virginia, « The East India Company and the Madagascar Slave Trade », William and Mary Quarterly, July 1969, pp. 548‑577.
Boxer, C. R., The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600‑1800, London, Penguin Books, 1990.
Campbell, Mavis C., The Maroons of Jamaica 1655‑1796, Trenton, N. J., Africa World Press, Inc., 1990.
Chase, Jeanne, « The Strange History of El Profeta Daniel: A Cautionary Tale Not Heeded », in Sylvia Marzagalli & Hubert Bonin, (eds.), Ports et océans xvie‑xxe siècles. Mélanges offerts à Paul Butel, Bordeaux, Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux, 2000, pp. 215‑224.
– The Life and Times of an Eighteenth Century Freedom Fighter, forthcoming.
Donnan, Elizabeth, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to the Americas, 4 v., Washington, D. C., Carnegie Institute, 1932.
Duffy, John, Epidemics in Colonial‑America, Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 1971.
Eltis, David, « The Volume and Structure of the Transatlantic Slave Trade: A Reassessment », William and Mary Quarterly, special issue New Perspectives on the Transatlantic Slave Trade, January 2001, pp. 17‑46.
Gaspar, David Barry, Bondmen and Rebels. A Study of Master‑Slave Relations in Antigua, Durham, Duke University Press, 1985.
– « ‘A Dangerous Spirit of Liberty’; Slave Rebellion in the West Indies During the 1730s », Cimarrons 1, 1981, pp. 79‑91.
Gomez, Michael, Exchanging Our Country Marks. The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1998.
Hodges, Graham Russell, Root and Branch. African‑Americans in New York and East Jersey 1613‑1863, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
Howard, Warren S., American Slavers and the Federal Law 1837‑1862, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1963.
Iliffe, John, Africans. The History of a Continent, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Lydon, James, « New York and the Slave Trade, 1700 to 1774 », William and Mary Quarterly, 1978, pp. 375‑394.
Manning, Patrick, Slavery and African Life. Occidental, Oriental and African Slave Trade, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Morris, Richard B., (ed.), Select Cases of the Mayor's Court of New York City, Washington, D.C., American Historical Association, 1935.
Pares, Richard, War and Trade in the West Indies 1739‑1763, London, Frank Cass & Co., Ltd., 1963.
Price, Jacob, « Transaction Costs: A Note on Merchant Credit and the Organization of Private Trade », in James Tracey, (ed.), The Political Economy of Merchant Empire, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991, pp. 276‑297.
Rawley, James A., The Transatlantic Slave Trade. A History, New York, W.W. Norton and Col, 1981.
Terray, Emmanuel, Une histoire du royaume abrun du Gyanon, Paris, éditions Kaarstade, 1995.
Thornton, John, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400‑1680, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992.
–, « African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion », American Historical Review, 1991, pp. 1101‑1113.
Walsh, Lorena S., « The Chesapeake Slave Trade: Regional Patterns, African Origins, and Some Implications », William and Mark Quarterly, January 2001, pp. 139‑170.
Wilks, Ivor, « The Mossi and Akan States 1500‑1800 » in J.‑F. Ade Ajovi & M. Crowder, (eds.), History of West Africa, Harlow, Essex, 1971, pp. 344‑386.
Woodt, Peter H., Black Majority, Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 to the Stono Rebelllon, New York, W. W. Norton and Co., 1974.
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Notes
Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, pp. 410‑411; Boxer, C. R., 1990, p. 99.
Howard, W. S., 1963.
Eltis, D., 2001, n. 21, p. 22. This issue summarizes the findings of the W. E. B. Dubois Institute (Harvard U.) representing 70% of all slaving voyages. Rawley, J. A., 1981, p. 360. I characterize an individual in transit as a captive on the grounds that a person becomes a slave only after sale and entry into work under the constraints defined by a particular slave society. A slave in, say, Kongo becomes a captive in transit, again a slave in, say, Carolina, and a captive once again if shipped out from there.
Thornton, J., 1992, p. 192; Walsh, L. S., 2001, pp. 145 and 170.
Hodges, G. R., 1999, pp. 38‑40.
Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, « Negroes Imported into New York, 1715‑1765 », pp. 462‑510, taken from Naval Officers Lists, Colonial Office 5, 122 NY; Boston News Letter, 1704‑1725; New York Gazette, 1726‑1742; New York Weekly Journal, 1733‑1742; Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, 15v, Albany, Weed’ Parsons and Company, 1857; « Trade Book of the Sloop Rhode Island December 1748 ‑ July 1749 », mss. division, The New York Historical Society.
The figure is at best 75% of all captives brought to New York, as it does not include captives on whom duty was not paid, those smuggled in by sea or overland, brought in the retenues of European migrants or by privateering vessels. James Lydon estimates a minimum of 2,400 captives were smuggled through the port between 1715 and 1764: « New York and the Slave Trade, 1700 to 1774 », William and Mary Quarterly, (Lydon, J., 1978, p. 387). J. Lydon treats origins of vessels entering the port in three categories: Africa, West Indies, North American Mainland, adding the ubiquitous « other ».
The terms were coined by M. Gomez, 1998, p. 26. Provincial officers sent their comments on the New York trade to London regularly and these provide important insights on the nature of the trade. Donnan, E., 1932, v. 5: « Mr. Colden’s Account of Trade »! 25 June 1723, pp. 685‑687; « Plantations in America in 1721 », anon., pp. 591‑630. v. 6: « Governor Cosby to the Lords of Trade », 6 December 1734, p. 20 « Clarke to Newcastle », 2 June 1738, p. 128.
Bever Platt, V., 1969, p. 548; Chase, J., 2000.
Donnan, E., v. 1, 1932, pp. 421‑429; Gaspar, D. B., 1985, p. 70. The merchant Jacobus Van Cortlandt offered a vivid account of the immediate impact of the Act on New York: « Lester Book of Jacobus Van Cortlandt 1698‑1700 », mss collection, The New York Historical Society.
Boston News Letter, 31 July 1704; Summary customs toms lists are available for the early years beginning 1701: « An Account of What Negro Slaves... Imported into Province of New York », Donnan, E., 1932, v. 5, p. 815. See also « Lord Cornbury to the Board of Trade », 1 July 1708, v. 5, p. 57, and « Governor Hunter to the Lords of Trade », 12 November 1712, v. 5, pp. 461‑462.
Thornton, J., 1992, p. 189; Gomez, M., 1998, p. 103, n. 45, p. 304, « Trade Book of the Sloop Rhode Island ».
Gomez, M., 1998, pp. 91‑93, 88‑89; Walsh, L., 2001, p. 158.
Iliffe, J., 1995, p. 129. The sloop Rhode Island boarded no captives from this region.
On « fringe » area: Manning, P., 1990, pp. 65‑66; Terray, E., 1995, pp. 139‑142, 149‑152, 158‑161, 183‑187; Wilks, I., 1971, pp. 344, 372‑377. The sloop Rhode Island took more captives from this area and in the shortest period of time than from any other area.
Gaspar, D. B., 1985, p. 89; Terray, E., 1995, pp. 141, 139.
Bever Platt, V., 1969, pp. 548, 558, n. 22.
Bever Platt, V., 1969, pp. 551, 565‑567; Chase, J., 2000. In 1698, the vessel’s supercargo was obliged to deal with a local ruler near Fort Dauphin who was born in Madagascar then taken as a captive to Martinique from where he escaped and returned home.
Thornton, J., 1991, pp. 1004, 1003‑1005; Gomez, M., 1998, pp. 135‑136.
The captain of the sloop Rhode Island intended to trade some of his captives in the « Cargo Islands » for provisions for the Atlantic crossing.
Gomez, M., 1998, p. 68. Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, « Negroes Imported », p. 463, for a gender balance of captives in 1716, and « Trade book of the sloop Rhode Island » for a similar balance in 1748.
Donnan, E., 1932, Jamaica, Barbados and Nevis: v. 1, p. 430; v. 2, pp. 78, 48.
Donnan, E., 1932, v. 2, p. 26. There is no indication of where in Africa these people were taken. The ship New York left New York in September 1698 for Barbados before crossing the Atlantic: « Lester Book of Jacobus Van Cortlandt », 10 September 1698.
Bever Platt, V., 1969, p. 564, n. 34 for first voyage; Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, pp. 471, 472.
Price, J., 1991, pp. 277‑278; Lydon, J., 1978, pp. 388‑389 on Walton as premier slave trader.
Donnan, E., 1932, v. 2, p. 459.
« Letter Book of Jacobus Van Cortlandt »; Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, « Negroes Imported », 1717, (p. 464) through 1741 (p. 508). New Yorkers also relied on West Indian contacts to supply their particular demands, revealing the urban preference for Creole labor. Letters of Isaac Bobin, Private Secretary of the Honorable George Clarke, Albany, 1872, pp. 35, 39, 41, 58‑59, 116, 152.
Gaspar, D. B., 1985, p. 84; Duffy, J., 1971, pp. 63‑96; on small pox in New York: « Rip Van Dam to the Lords of Trade », 11 September 1731; « Lt. Gov. Clarke to the Lords of Trade », 18 April 1739, Donnan, E., 1932, v. 5, p. 924; v. 6, p. 140.
Gaspar, D. B., 1981, pp. 79‑91.
New York Weekly Journal, 14, 21, 28 May 1739; Campbell, M. C., 1990, pp. 54, 58, 61, 78, 105, 126‑128, 135‑137.
Gaspar, D. B., 1985, pp. 21‑42. On the cooperative witnesses: Chase, J., forthcoming, Chap. 3, p. 4. Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, pp. 499, 500 (1737), pp. 501, 502 (1738, 1739), pp. 505‑507 (1739‑41).
Whereas the duty paid on Africans imported directly from Africa was 15s, indirect imports carried a duty of 1 pound l0s until 1709, when the latter duty was increased to 3 pounds. Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, p. 444. This may have produced the abrupt shift from « West Indies » to « Africa » in the rudimentary Customs lists of the time (see note 11). The duty was subsequently reduced, but still prompted New Yorkers’ complaints: « Van Dam to the Lords of Trade » 11 September 1731, Donnan, E., 1932, v. 5, pp. 925‑929.
Woodt, P. H., 1974, p. 333.
Gomez, M., 1998, p. 302, n. 5.
Lydon, J., 1978, p. 390.
Morris, R. B., 1935, Petrus Low, mariner v Nathaniel Simson, 4 November 1718, pp. 701‑704.
Gaspar, D. B., 1985, p. 138; Donnan, E., 1932, v. 3, p. 467.
Pares, R., 1963; New York Weekly Journal, 10 Jan. 1737, 10 Dec. 1739, 5 Feb., 10 March, 28 April, 11 August 1740, 20 June, 18 July 1742, 30 Sept., 15 Oct. 1743, 1 April 1745.
Lydon, J., 1978, Table iv, p. 382.
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